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Chapter Six: Transformation between Spatio-Temporal Imagery: Section One: Definition and Function of Manifestation I. Imagination: Traversing time and space, faster than light “Light” is currently the fastest-moving entity in the world; it can circle the Earth seven and a half times in one second, and no substance can surpass the speed of light. Human “imagination,” however, is boundless and unrestricted by time or space: it can traverse the past, present, and future, and bring distant scenes directly before the eyes. Therefore, imagination is even faster, more complex, and more wondrous than light. Imagination enables human mental activity to attain a relative freedom beyond real spatio-temporal constraints. By using imagination, scenes and events from different times and spaces can be brought together, or phenomena that cannot be seen or heard in reality can be described and depicted through language, reorganized under a new order, allowing readers to feel as if they are “personally present and witnessing everything vividly before their eyes.” This method of expression, which “transforms time and space and re-presents scenes,” is the rhetorical device of manifestation. II. Definition and function of manifestation
Scholar Chen Wangdao first proposed the rhetorical figure “manifestation,” defining it as follows: “Manifestation is to describe things that cannot actually be seen or heard as if they were seen and heard. The so-called not seen or not heard refers to things that have already passed, or are yet to come, or are beyond ordinary time and space, or are extraordinary rhetorical expressions beyond reality.”¹ Scholar Huang Lizhen explains from a methodological perspective: “Using methods of recollection, anticipation, or imaginative projection, to vividly present events from the past, the future, or occurring elsewhere at this moment, is the rhetorical device of manifestation.”² She further states: “Manifestation is a technique entirely based on imagination, transforming past or future time and space into the present; therefore, the ‘present’ is the fundamental structural standpoint of manifestation. Without this standpoint of ‘present,’ one cannot speak of transformation.” This indicates that manifestation is grounded on imagination, while simultaneously using the “present moment” as the reference point for transforming time and space.
Synthesizing the above scholarly views, the present author, from psychological and aesthetic perspectives, summarizes as follows: The creator, through rich imagination, employs associative proximity to grasp the relative closeness of subject and object in time or space. Using connective “imaginative prompting expressions,” the two are linked together, so that scenes or situations which are in reality neither seen nor heard are described as if they were directly perceived, producing a vivid “transcending time and space and appearing before the eyes” effect. Its purpose is to appeal to the reader’s senses and imagination, creating a strong contrast between imagined and real situations, producing vivid impressions and arousing resonance in the reader. The function of manifestation lies in its ability to strengthen the imagery intended by the writer, making it vividly perceivable—visible, audible, tangible, and perceptible—so that readers feel as if they are personally present and thus obtain an intense aesthetic experience.³ III. Historical development of manifestation Regarding how human imaginative activity is expressed in literature through manifestation, Liu Xie’s The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons: The Section on Spiritual Thought (Chapter 26) provides a vivid description: “Ancient people said: ‘The body is on the rivers and seas, while the mind dwells in the imperial court.’ This refers to spiritual thought. In literary thinking, the spirit travels far. Thus, in still contemplation, thought spans a thousand years; in subtle movement of expression, vision extends ten thousand miles. In the act of chanting poetry, one produces sounds as precious as pearls and jade; before the eyes, one unfolds the colors of wind and clouds. Is this not the culmination of thought? Therefore, when thought is refined, spirit and objects travel together; the spirit resides in the chest and mind, while intention and vital energy govern its mechanism; external things follow visual perception, while language controls its pivot. When the pivot is open, nothing in the world is hidden; when it is blocked, the spirit loses its direction.”⁴ Liu Xie explains the relationship between “thought—meaning—language”: thought refers to spiritual cognition, meaning refers to imagery, and language refers to verbal expression. That is, “meaning is born from thought, language is born from meaning,” progressing from spiritual imagination to imagery and then to words. “Still contemplation spans a thousand years” describes the temporal transcendence of imagination; “vision extends ten thousand miles” describes its spatial transcendence. Because imagination transcends both time and space, the creator can “travel with things through spirit”: between recitation and chanting, producing sounds like pearls and jade; before the eyes, unfolding the colors of wind and clouds. In classical Chinese poetry, manifestation was widely favored by poets across dynasties. Works such as Du Fu’s “Moonlit Night,” Li Shangyin’s “Night Rain Sent to the North,” Wang Wei’s “On the Ninth Day, Thinking of My Brothers in Shandong,” Liu Yong’s “Rain Bells,” and Lu You’s “Exhortation to My Son,” whether expressing familial love, conjugal affection, sibling bonds, friendship, or even national sentiment, all appear vivid and lifelike, and are highly celebrated. Section Two: Semantic structure of manifestation I. Structural composition of manifestation The structural analysis of manifestation is as follows: A present spatio-temporal scene + imaginative prompting expressions such as “recollect,” “likely,” “I recall,” “should be,” “I remember,” “when will,” etc. + (1) recollection of past scenes, or (2) projection of future scenes, or (3) imaginative construction of another spatial scene. This is the normal structure of manifestation. If the imaginative prompting expression is omitted, it becomes a variant structure. (1) Normal structure: example “Thinking of you in an autumn night, I stroll and chant in the cool sky; in the empty mountains, pine nuts fall, the recluse should not yet be asleep.” (Wei Yingwu, “Autumn Night Sent to Qiu Shier Yuanwai”) The word “should” is the imaginative prompting expression, and “the recluse should not yet be asleep” constructs an imagined spatial scene in which the friend Qiu Shier Yuanwai, like the author, is perhaps also experiencing this quiet and cool autumn night and has not yet rested. (2) Variant structure: example “A maiden in her chamber does not know sorrow; in spring she adorns herself and ascends the green tower. Suddenly she sees willow-green along the roadside and regrets urging her husband to seek official rank.” (Wang Changling, “Grievance of a Lonely Woman”) When the maiden ascends the tower and sees the spring scenery, she is suddenly moved by the sight of green willows, which evokes emotions of sorrow and nostalgia for past marital happiness. She then regrets encouraging her husband to pursue official success, which has led to their separation. Although there is no explicit imaginative prompting word in the last two lines, the word “regret” allows us to infer a retrospective manifestation that returns the scene to the past. II. Aesthetic foundation of manifestation Manifestation is primarily based on the “law of proximity,” that is, associative proximity. “Because two phenomena are relatively close in time or space, human experience tends to connect them repeatedly.”⁵ Secondly, it involves “re-presentational capacity” (recollection) and “creative capacity” (imagination and prediction). Therefore, it can transcend temporal and spatial boundaries, making imagined phenomena vivid and lifelike, giving readers or listeners direct perceptual scenes as if they were personally present. If expressed in cinematic terms, transitions often use techniques such as “fade-out,” “fade-in,” or “superimposition” to switch between different spatio-temporal scenes. The creator, through rich imagination and associative proximity, links subject and object based on their closeness in time or space. Using connective imaginative prompting expressions, they combine elements that are in reality unseen and unheard into vivid representations, producing the effect of “travelling through time and space, appearing vividly before the eyes.” Its purpose is to engage the reader’s senses and imagination, creating a strong contrast between imagined and real scenes, producing vivid impressions and emotional resonance. Section Three: Forms of Manifestation “Manifestation is to describe things that are in reality neither seen nor heard as if they were seen and heard. The so-called not seen and not heard refers either to what has already passed, or what has not yet come, or what transcends time and space and reality—an extraordinary rhetorical form beyond the real.”⁶ “Manifestation is the act of using the author’s imagination to describe things that are in reality neither seen nor heard as if they were seen and heard.”⁷ As a rhetorical device that transforms spatio-temporal scenes, manifestation is concretely implemented through “methods of recollection, anticipation, and imaginative projection, vividly presenting events that occurred in the past, will occur in the future, or are occurring elsewhere at this moment.”⁸ According to changes in time and space, manifestation is divided into three types: (1) retrospective narration of the past, (2) prophetic projection of the future, and (3) imaginative projection of simultaneous events in another place in the present. The nature of manifestation tends toward narration and description, striving for concreteness and vividness, so as to provide readers with a sense of “immediate presence,” creating an atmosphere of “personally experiencing the scene, with images overflowing into the present.” In this way, poetic works can incorporate narrative structure more effectively, allowing readers to follow the unfolding story and plot. Modern poets, inheriting classical techniques, also frequently use manifestation to transform spatio-temporal scenes and construct narrative structures, thereby enhancing the readability of their works. (1) Retrospection of the past: retrospective manifestation This refers to bringing past events into the present. The events being recalled, regardless of time or person, once entered into recollection, cause both time and space to shift into the past together.⁹ “Retrospective manifestation is not an aimless or unconscious reproduction of past events, but a deliberate expression, based on creative imagination, of memorable or emotionally significant experiences.”¹⁰ It is not constrained by time and space, and makes past events appear vividly as if occurring in the present, often using memory as its medium. For example: “Far away I recall General Zhou Yu in his prime, when Little Qiao had just married him, his heroic bearing in full bloom, feather fan and silk scarf, laughing and talking while enemy fleets turned to ashes.” (Su Shi, “Niannujiao”) The word “recall” is a typical temporal cue used in retrospective manifestation. From the phrase “in his prime” onward, the text enters a retrospective temporal inversion, where time and space are immediately transformed, and the reader is brought back to the Three Kingdoms era, stepping into an imagined scene. Another example: “Where to find the Prime Minister’s temple? Outside the brocade city, cypress trees stand dense. Green grass by the steps reflects spring colors; orioles behind the leaves sing in vain. Three visits troubled his grand strategy; two dynasties relied on his loyal heart. Before fulfilling his expedition, he died; forever causing heroes to wet their collars with tears.” (Du Fu, “The Prime Minister of Shu”) This seven-character regulated verse possesses strong artistic impact, with its final couplet regarded as an eternal masterpiece. The first half depicts scenery; the couplet “green grass by the steps” uses spring scenery to contrast Du Fu’s melancholy over not meeting the historical figure. The second half shifts from scene to emotion through retrospective manifestation, reconstructing historical reality. The “three visits” couplet succinctly summarizes Zhuge Liang’s life achievements. The final couplet mourns deeply that Zhuge Liang’s great enterprise remained unfinished, a sorrow shared by all heroes who failed to achieve their ambitions, and also reflects Du Fu’s own profound sense of frustration. Du Fu’s “Five Poems on Historical Sites” similarly employ retrospective manifestation. Modern poets also use manifestation to traverse time and space and transform narrative scenes. Consider the following examples: Xiang Yang: “The Gaze of the Ginkgo Tree” Only the twenty-year long pure song has grown like branches From the line “you once unfolded leaves,” the temporal frame shifts into recollection. Until “at that time / you were still strong,” the past tense marker again indicates that time remains in the past. This passage is thus a retrospective manifestation. The ginkgo tree grows in Xitou, Lugu Township, Nantou, the poet’s hometown. The author once studied in northern Taiwan, identifying himself with the resilient spirit of the ginkgo. Although the poem appears to be an object poem praising the ginkgo, it is in fact strongly autobiographical. Zheng Chouyu: “Memories of Wind and Rain” Dew is heavy, Thinking of days like falling grain, thinking of small things, I remember the windy and rainy path by the river, Dew is too heavy, like teardrops rolling down lips This poem mainly uses recollection as its narrative method. The third line of the first section already introduces “thinking of you…”, a cue for retrospective manifestation, shifting time from present to past. Subsequent lines repeatedly reconstruct past scenes and events through memory. The poet continuously uses cues such as “thinking of you,” “I remember,” and “I still remember” to maintain the past temporal frame and guide the reader through scene transitions. Zheng Chouyu: “Rain Threads” Our love once played in transparent forests our love This poem begins with the simile of “rain threads,” leading readers into past time. Lines such as “once played” and “once washed feet” clearly indicate the past tense. The poem unfolds a recollected love story in a retrospective structure. At the end, the cue word “now” returns the temporal frame from memory back to reality, which appears emotionally difficult and painful. Yu Guangzhong: “Six Umbrellas: The Family Umbrella” The most unforgettable is Jiangnan my trembling shoulders—who how many rivers, how many seas what kind of wind and rain From the temporal cue “childhood,” the poem enters retrospective narration, returning to childhood scenes in Jiangnan water towns. Later, it shifts back to present time with the spatial cue of “recalling my mother,” and then extends into simultaneous distant projection, a form of imaginative manifestation. Through both retrospective and simultaneous projection, time moves between past and present, while space shifts between hometown, present residence, and the distant grave of the mother. Xi Murong: “Forty Years Old” Perhaps it was that voyage at sea the time of new wine fermenting This passage begins with retrospective narration, recalling a voyage and stargazing in summer nights. After the phrase “has already become,” time returns to the present, from which the speaker reflects that those shimmering years now seem distant. Entering middle age, burdened by reality, the poet no longer experiences youthful romanticism, though she still cherishes the past, knowing it can no longer return. Chapter Six: Transformation between Temporal and Spatial Imagery: Section One: Definition and Function of Manifestation
“Light” is currently the fastest moving phenomenon in the world; it can circle the Earth seven and a half times in one second, and no substance can surpass the speed of light. Human “imagination,” however, is boundless and unrestricted by time and space: it can traverse past, present, and future, and bring distant scenes before one’s eyes. Therefore, imagination is faster, more intricate, and more wondrous than light. Imagination enables human mental activity to achieve a relative freedom beyond actual time-space limitations. By using imagination, scenes and things from different times and spaces can be brought together, or scenes and things that cannot actually be seen or heard can be depicted in words and arranged under a new order, so that readers feel as if they are “personally present in the situation, with reality overflowing before their eyes,” as though they have seen and heard it themselves. This method of expression—“transforming time and space, re-presenting scenes”—is the rhetorical device known as manifestation.
(1) Scholars’ definitions and explanations Scholar Chen Wangdao was the first to propose the rhetorical figure “manifestation,” defining it as follows: “Manifestation is to describe things that cannot actually be seen or heard as if they were seen and heard. What is meant by not seen or not heard refers either to what has already passed, or what has not yet occurred, or what transcends time and space and exists beyond reality as an extraordinary rhetorical form.”1 Scholar Huang Licheng, from a methodological perspective, states: “By means of recollection, anticipation, or imaginative projection, vividly presenting events that occurred in the past, will occur in the future, or are occurring elsewhere at this moment is the rhetorical device of manifestation.”2 She further explains: “Manifestation is a technique entirely based on imagination, transforming past or future time and space into the present; therefore, ‘the present’ is the fundamental standpoint of manifestation. Without this standpoint, transformation cannot be discussed.” This indicates that manifestation is based on imagination on one hand, and on “the present” as the reference point for transforming time and space on the other. (2) The author’s definition Synthesizing the views above, the present writer, from the perspectives of psychology and aesthetics, summarizes as follows: The creator, by exercising rich imagination and through associative proximity, grasps the relative closeness in time or space between subject and object, and connects them using linking “speculative cue words.” In this way, scenes or situations that cannot actually be seen or heard are described as if they were seen and heard, producing a situational effect of “traversing time and space, with reality overflowing before the eyes.” Its purpose is to appeal to the reader’s senses and imagination, creating a strong contrast between imagined and real situations, producing vivid impressions and evoking resonance. The function of manifestation is to enhance the imagery the writer intends to depict, making it lively and perceptible—visible, audible, tangible, and emotionally perceptible—allowing readers to feel as if they are personally present and to obtain great aesthetic enjoyment.3
Regarding how the mental activity of human imagination is expressed in literature through manifestation, Liu Xie’s Wenxin Diaolong: “Shensi (The Spiritual Mind), Chapter 26” provides a vivid description: “The ancients said: ‘The body is situated above the rivers and seas, while the mind dwells beneath the imperial palace,’ referring to spiritual thought. The thinking of literature is indeed profoundly spiritual. Thus, when one sits in quiet contemplation, thought can extend across a thousand years; when one’s expression subtly moves, vision can traverse ten thousand miles. Between recitation and chanting, one may produce sounds like pearls and jade; before one’s brows and eyelashes, one may unfold images like wind and clouds. Is this not the ultimate of thought? Therefore, when thought reaches its subtlety, spirit and object travel together; the spirit resides in the heart, and intention and energy govern its mechanism; objects follow visual form, and language governs its pivot. When the pivot operates smoothly, nothing remains hidden in objects; when the mechanism is blocked, the spirit loses its way.”4 Liu Xie explains the relationship between “thought—meaning—language”: thought refers to spiritual cognition (imagination), meaning refers to imagery (literary conception), and language refers to verbal expression. Thus, “meaning is born from thought, and language is born from meaning.” “Quiet contemplation extending across a thousand years” expresses the transcendence of imagination in time; “subtle movement of expression, vision spanning ten thousand miles” expresses its transcendence in space. Because of this dual transcendence of time and space, creators can “travel with spirit and things”: between chanting and recitation, producing sounds like jade; before the eyes, unfolding wind-and-cloud-like imagery. In classical Chinese poetry, manifestation has long been favored by poets across dynasties, such as Du Fu’s “Moonlit Night,” Li Shangyin’s “Night Rain Sent to the North,” Wang Wei’s “On the Ninth Day, Remembering My Brothers in Shandong,” Liu Yong’s “Rain Bell,” and Lu You’s “To My Son.” Whether expressing familial love, marital affection, sibling bonds, friendship, or even national sentiment, these works are vivid and lifelike, and many have become widely celebrated. Section Two: The Semantic Structure of Manifestation
The structural analysis of manifestation is as follows: The present temporal-spatial scene + speculative cue words such as recollection, foresight, thought, “should be,” “remember,” “when will,” etc. + (1) recollection of past scenes, or (2) prediction of future temporal-spatial scenes, or (3) imaginative projection of another spatial scene in the present. This is the normal structure of manifestation; if the cue words are omitted, it becomes a variant structure. (1) Normal structure: example “Thinking of you in an autumn night, I walk and chant in the cool sky. In the empty mountain, pine seeds fall; the recluse should not yet be asleep.” (Wei Yingwu, “Autumn Night Sending to Qi the Twelfth Gentleman”) The word “should” is the speculative cue word, and “the recluse should not yet be asleep” is an imaginative projection of another spatial scene: the friend Qi the Twelfth Gentleman may now, like the author, be enjoying this quiet and cool autumn night, not yet resting. (2) Variant structure: example “A maiden in the boudoir does not know sorrow; on a spring day she adorns herself and ascends the green tower. Suddenly she sees the willow color on the roadside, and regrets having urged her husband to seek official rank.” (Wang Changling, “Boudoir Grief”) Here there is no explicit cue word, but from the word “regret,” one can infer a retrospective manifestation, bringing the scene back into the past. Section Three: Aesthetic Foundation of Manifestation Manifestation is primarily based on the “law of proximity,” namely associative proximity: “Because two things are relatively close in time or space, they are often linked together in human experience.”5 Secondly, it involves “re-presentation” (retrospection) and “creativity” (imaginative projection and foresight). Thus, it transcends temporal and spatial barriers, making imagined things vivid and lifelike, giving readers or listeners an intuitive scene as if they were personally present. In cinematic terms, this often corresponds to “fade-out,” “fade-in,” or “superimposition” techniques used to switch between different temporal-spatial scenes. The creator, by exercising rich imagination and through associative proximity, grasps the relative closeness in time or space between subject and object, and connects them using linking “speculative cue words.” In this way, scenes or situations that cannot actually be seen or heard are described as if they were seen and heard, producing a situational effect of “traversing time and space, with reality overflowing before the eyes.” Its purpose is to appeal to the reader’s senses and imagination, creating a strong contrast between imagined and real situations, producing vivid impressions and evoking resonance. Zheng Chouyu “Parting Ode”25 At this moment I think you have already returned to your riverside home This time I leave you, and I will no longer wish to see you, In this “Parting Ode,” the poet is situated in “present time,” but because “imaginative manifestation” is used, the scene splits into two, producing two narrative main lines: one is the scene where the author currently resides, namely “while my journey home through wind and rain is still long / the mountains recede far away, the plains spread wider and wider” and “this world that I still firmly tread upon”; the other is the author’s “inference” about what “you” in the poem is “possibly” doing at present, namely “you have already returned to your riverside home,” “combing your long hair or arranging your wet outer garment,” and “it has already become your dream.” In the first stanza’s third line, “A lonely road then extends toward both ends,” the groundwork for “imaginative manifestation” has already been laid, and in the following lines the author provides cue phrases such as “at this moment” and “I imagine,” from which readers can find interpretive clues. Zheng Chouyu “The Small Island”26 The poet is thinking of his lover living on a small island; this “simultaneous but spatially distant” longing originally occurs in the poet’s mind, but through “imaginative manifestation,” the poet clearly depicts the images that arise in his mind, and leads readers through the island’s beautiful scenery as if on an imaginative vessel. In the latter part, the poem shifts to “prediction,” imagining that if the poet himself goes to the island to find his lover, he will bring a flute and staff, or willingly transform into a firefly to remain with the lover forever. (4) Traversing time and space: interactive use of the three types of manifestation By applying the rhetorical device of “manifestation,” one can traverse different times and spaces. Therefore, if one becomes familiar with the three types—recollection, prediction, and imaginative projection—one can gather different temporal-spatial dimensions together and narrate, describe, and express emotion within them, like a multimedia film displaying different images on the same screen. Chen Li “Family Journey: Song of the Knight”27 One day In this poem, the author successively employs the three forms of manifestation to construct a complete family life history. “Dear grandmother / riding a bicycle / singing in the sky” expresses remembrance of the deceased grandmother in the form of simultaneous but spatially distant imaginative projection. “Leaving behind two bracelets / like wheels on the earth / hanging on my heart; those wheels, rotating into / a ring / placed upon my daughter’s / marriage hand” is triggered by the grandmother’s relics and belongs to the recollection and reconstruction of past memories (retrospective manifestation). “One day / when I too ride a bicycle / singing in the sky / her child will touch / the necklace on the chest / and smile at me with understanding” is the author’s imagination and prediction of his own afterlife (predictive manifestation). Throughout the poem, time and space constantly shift, forming a complete and coherent narrative structure. To determine which form of “manifestation” a poetic work employs, and to distinguish whether it belongs to retrospective manifestation, predictive manifestation, or imaginative projection, one may start from temporal adverbs such as “yesterday, today, tomorrow,” which is usually effective in most cases. However, if one can simultaneously identify tense-indicating cue words within the lines for cross-reference, it becomes even more precise to locate the temporal and spatial field. This applies both to poetic interpretation and to creative writing: when using manifestation, one must carefully arrange temporal adverbs and tense cues. Excess is harmful in either direction: too frequent and dense use will make the poem loose and prosaic; insufficient use will cause temporal-spatial confusion, leaving readers disoriented. Notes (1) Chen Wangdao, Rhetoric: An Introduction, Hong Kong: Taiguang, 1964, p. 127. |
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