A973上- 國際領導技巧協會ILA《The Future of Leadership Development: Leadership as a Collective Process》 

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你知道有這麼一個ILA協會嗎？

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ILA是International Leadership Association的縮寫。

Leadership是「領導技巧」；ILA是領袖們參加的協會、還是傳授領袖技巧的拹會呢？

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先看何謂領導技巧………

★(1). 領導技巧、Leadership-Wikipedia：維基把「Leadership」譯為「領袖」，錯了！因此，我們先不看中文篇而看英文篇(中文篇可供額外的參考)。Leadership has been described as the "process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task." Definitions more inclusive of followers have also emerged. Alan Keith stated that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen." Tom DeMarco says that leadership needs to be distinguished from posturing.

The following sections discuss several important aspects of leadership including a description of what leadership is and a description of several popular theories and styles of leadership. This article also discusses topics such as the role of emotions and vision, as well as leadership effectiveness and performance, leadership in different contexts, how it may differ from related concepts (i.e., management), and some critiques of leadership as generally conceived.

[ Contents ]：以下僅摘要

1 Theories - Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." The leader may or may not have any formal authority. Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence among others.

1.1 Early history (1841, 1869)

1.2 Rise of alternative theories (1940s – 1950s)

1.3 Reemergence of trait theory (1980s --- ). Specifically, Zaccaro (2007)[6] noted that trait theories still: Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills

Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes

Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences

Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership

1.4 Attribute pattern approach

1.5 Behavioral and style theories (Main article: Managerial grid model)

1.6 Situational and contingency theories (Main articles: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, Path-goal theory, and Hersey-Blanchard situational theory).

1.7 Functional theory (Main article: Functional leadership model)

1.8 Transactional and transformational theories (Main articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership)

1.9 Emotions -Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process. In an organization, the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group. These effects can be described in 3 levels: 1- The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion. Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers. 2- The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood. 3- Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good.The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.

1.10 Neo-emergent theory (Main article: Functional leadership model) .

1.11 Environmental leadership theory - The Environmental leadership model (Carmazzi) describes leadership from a Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and self awareness to nurture "Environments" that promote self sustaining group leadership based on personal emotional gratification from the activities of the group. The Environmental Leader creates the psychological structure by which employees can find and attain this gratification through work or activity.

2 Styles 

2.1 Kurt Lewin - Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership:  

2.1.1 Autocratic  or authoritarian style

2.1.2 Participative or democratic style

2.1.3 Laissez-faire or free rein style

3 Performance ( Main article: Leadership Performance)

4 Contexts 

4.1 Organizations

4.2 Management

4.3 Group leadership  - According to the National School Boards Association (USA)

These Group Leadership or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics:

A-    Characteristics of a Team

1- There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.

2- There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, learn from and work with others.

3- The member must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.

B-     Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams:

1- Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals.

2- Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals.

3- Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task.

4- Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.

5- Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth.

6- Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.

7- Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups.

8- Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together.

9- Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly.

10- Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members.-

4.4 Primates - Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living on earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land. This position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal), and many others.

It would be beneficial, to examine that most accounts of leadership over the past few millennia (since the creation of Christian religions) are through the perspective of a patriarchal society, founded on Christian literature. If one looks before these times, it is noticed that Pagan and Earth-based tribes in fact had female leaders. It is important also to note that the peculiarities of one tribe cannot necessarily be ascribed to another, as even our modern-day customs differ. The current day patrilineal custom is only a recent invention in human history and our original method of familial practices were matrilineal (Dr. Christopher Shelley and Bianca Rus, UBC).] The fundamental assumption that has been built into 90% of the world's countries is that patriarchy is the 'natural' biological predisposition of homo sapiens. Unfortunately, this belief has led to the widespread oppression of women in all of those countries, but in varying degrees. (Whole Earth Review, Winter, 1995 by Thomas Laird, Michael Victor). The Iroquoian First Nations tribes are an example of a matrilineal tribe, along with Mayan tribes, and also the society of Meghalaya, India. (Laird and Victor, ).]

By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of man, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male in the land. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly "peaceful" nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a "hippie chimp".

5 Historical views

6 Action oriented environments

7 Titles emphasizing authority

8 Critical thought - Noam Chomsky and others have brought critical thinking to the very concept of leadership and have provided an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership is rather satisfying to people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should question why they are being subjected to a will or intellect other than their own if the leader is not a Subject Matter Expert (SME).

The fundamentally anti-democratic nature of the leadership principle is challenged by the introduction of concepts such as autogestion, employeeship, common civic virtue, etc., which stress individual responsibility and/or group authority in the work place and elsewhere by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out leadership as the basis of a special class of individuals.

Similarly, various historical calamities are attributed to a misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership.

8.1 Varieties of individual power

9 See also

10 References

11 Further reading

12 External links - Leadership at the Open Directory Project

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★(2). Caseru SocialWork Encycropedia CSWE-《領袖和領導技巧》：

「愚蒙人得愚昧為產業；通達人得知識為冠冕」。      箴14:18

『領導(leadership)是一個耳熟能詳的概念，但卻不是一件稀鬆平常的事。我們常以為一個團體在進行中，社會工作者必然就是這個團體的領導者，事實不然，團體中並非一定只有一位領導者，也不必一定存在特定的領導者。領導在團體中是一件高度可變的現象』。(引自-林萬億 民國八十四年 P285)

領導的角色與功能 - 任務與維持團體功能是團體中解決問題的兩個主要活動。基本上，這兩組活動是相對而且互補的，領導的行使就是在支持團體去管理與駕馭解決這兩組問題的活動。(引自-林萬億 民國八十四年 P286)情境論者(situationists)假定團體動力與外在因素是團體行成的目標，而領導便是在指揮團體的組成與達成目標。 

領導的形成有下列條件:(引自-林萬億 民國八十四年 P286)

(1).團體的存在。 

(2).共同的目標。 

(3).責任分化。 

而領導者受到下列五個類屬的影響而決定其行為形態如下:(引自-林萬億 民國八十四年 P286~P287)

(1).成員與領導者間的人際關係。 

(2).羣格(group syntality)或結構的品質，例如:互動、凝聚力、團結等。 

(3).團體所在的大社會脈絡特徵。 

(4).外在物理環境。 

(5).團體即將去面對的任務。 

團體互動的相態將影響領導者的角色有四點:(引自-林萬億 民國八十四年 P287)

(1).角色分化是團體的目標，以滿足個人需求。 

(2).領導是兩個人以上互動的概念，領導者必將評估、指揮其他人員達成共同目標。 

(3).領導的評估是理解和情緒附著的結果。 

(4).帶領一组複雜的人際關係，依序成為解釋領導角色的基礎。 

在團體的運作中，要使團體有效的發揮其效能，在其過程裡，都會出現一位或多位的領導者，引導及整合成員的各種行為、活動，使團體能導向目標運作。 

團體工作者的領導技巧 

以下介紹十五種團體工作者可以遵守的工作技巧:(引自-林萬億 民國八十七年 P301~P307)

(一).自我揭露: 自我揭露(self-disclosure)是領導者有目的的針對團體過程及內容表達的個人經驗。例如：領導者必須意識到未被服務的個人需求。 

(二).面質: 面質(confromtation)是領導者去挑戰成員或團體以確定無作用的重複行為。 

(三).幽默: 在團體裡運用真誠和具建設性的幽默可以增強團體的信任。(引自-曾華源 民國七十九年四月二十五日 P253)而幽默(humor)也是在協助個人與他人的親近及克服困難。 

(四).探索: 探索(exploration)是透過措辭與引導問題來澄清的，並可溝通與增加團體參與的互動。 

(五).摘述: 摘述(summarizing)能使團體會期中的觀點被精確的提出。 

(六).支持: 支持(support)通常是再整與增強成員的團體能力，也可減少緊張、羞恥和不確定。 

(七).認知重建: 認知重建(cognitive restructuring)相似於理解再組(perceptual reordering)，目的是在於打破一些被其他理解的取向所吸引。 

(八).角色扮演: 角色扮演(role playing)技術被認為是一種心裡治療。治療取向分別為心理劇、固定角色、治療行為演練這三種治療。(引自-陳金定 民國九十年 P405)其目的是使參與者了解自己角色和其他人的角色。 

(九).方案使用: 使用方案活動來增加發展與履行新的角色，是團體工作中重要的一部份。 

(十).前後關連: 前後關連(sequencing)是一種持續的單位，隨著成長而有連續與運動。 

(十一).時間掌握: 領導者再適當的時機採取行動，而達到最大的效果。 

(十二).部份化: 部份化(partializing)是使問題被打散，而比較容易解決。 

(十三).澄清: 澄清(clarification)是使溝通訊息能夠清晰，也能使成員自我了解。 

(十四).普及化: 普及化(universalization)是讓成員可以從經驗中抽離與其他人可以接受的經驗，以成為團體的整體經驗。 

(十五).示範: Corey(1992)談到:「教導所欲之行為最好的方式之一就是在團體中示範那些行為。」(引自-程小蘋 民國八十四年 P167)當領導者表現出最有效的溝通方式或傾聽能力時，這對成員達到同樣的行為也會有很好的示範。 

領導者的技巧 - 一個優秀的團體領導者還必須具備下列五種基本的溝通技巧:(引自-潘正德 西元一九九七年八月 P89)

=== 待續 ===