第二卷 論概念(Book II: Of Ideas)有三十三章;第二十二章 論混合的型相(Chapter XXII: Of Mixed Modes)論及在人類的心靈將很多簡單概念被組合在一起，以”約定俗成”的名詞稱呼它，形成一個混合型相。第二十三章論我們實體的複雜概念(Chapter XXIII: Of our Complex Ideas of Substances) 是要探討: 這些被我們稱為實體，它的簡單概念如何能夠自己存在;我們習慣假設一種基層(substratum)讓實體可繼續存在(subsist)，並由此讓實體得到”歸結”。這是洛克在第十二章 論複雜概念(Chapter XII: Of Complex Ideas)中談及的本質的概念，單一的和集合的 (Ideas of substances, single or collective.)等實體相關概念的深入探討。 何謂”Substances”?

就細細的瞭解洛克邏輯思維辯證的過程如何導引出:”Substances”就是我們感官所能察覺的各種屬性及我們所不能真正瞭解的”一種東西”!! I.E.同樣的英文Substances要對應華夏的詞彙就蠻困難的，在不同的章節用”實體”、”本質”、”物質”作對應。

• 我們不清晰的實體概括性概念(Our obscure idea of substance in general.)如果任何人考察他自己關於他的一般性純粹實體觀點，他會發現他對它(純粹實體)全然沒有決定性的概念，只僅僅他”自以為是”的知道並不能有這樣的素質能夠支持為我們內在產生一個簡單的概念;這種素質通常稱為偶然性。 ( So that if any one will examine himself concerning his notion of pure substance in general, he will find he has no other idea of it at all, but only a supposition of he knows not what support of such qualities which are capable of producing simple ideas in us ; which qualities are commonly called accidents.)如果問任何人被問到，主體所具有的顏色或重量固有性質是什麼，則他也只能說，只是固體廣延的部分;但如果他被追問，什麼是堅實性和廣延性內在固有性質，則他的情況正有類於先前所提到的印度人所說的，世界是被大象所支撐的，再問象立足在什麼上;對這提問的答案—是大龜:但再一次堅持要知道給寬背大龜支撐的是什麼，回答---一種東西，但他不知道是什麼。( If any one should be asked, what is the subject wherein colour or weight inheres, he would have nothing to say, but the solid extended parts ; and if he were demanded, what is it that solidity and extension adhere in, he would not be in a much better case than the Indian before mentioned who, saying that the world was supported by a great elephant, was asked what the elephant rested on ; to which his answer was – a great tortoise : but being again pressed to know what gave support to the broad-backed tortoise, replied – something, he knew not what.) 在這裡，同所有其他我們使用文字並沒有明白清晰概念的情況一樣，我們談話就像小孩:問一個就像這樣的事情，他們自己不知道的，已準備給這種滿意的答案，那就是一種東西: 這就是確切的真相，當如此運用，兒童或成人，是因為他們不知道; 而且這個事物他們裝作知道，並且談論，是他們全然不曾有清晰的概念，實在是完全不瞭解它，而陷於黑暗中。 ……( And thus here, as in all other cases where we use words without having clear and distinct ideas, we talk like children : who, being questioned what such a thing is, which they know not, readily give this satisfactory answer, that it is something : which in truth signifies no more, when so used, either by children or men, but that they know not what ; and that the thing they pretend to know, and talk of, is what they have no distinct idea of at all, and so are perfectly ignorant of it, and in the dark. ……)
• 論實體的類別(Of the sorts of substances.) 普遍存在的晦澀和相對的實體概念使我們得到特殊類別的實體概念，經由通過人們感官的經驗和觀察收集這種，常被注意到一起存在的簡單概念組合;並因而假設(特殊類別的實體概念)是由內在結構，或不可知這種實體的本質中流露出的。我們由此得到了人、馬、金、水等等概念；人們對於這些實體所有的概念，除了一些共存的簡單概念外，是否任何人還有別的清晰概念，則我訴諸於每個人自己的經驗。(An obscure and relative idea of substance in general being thus made we come to have the ideas of particular sorts of substances, by collecting such combinations of simple ideas as are, by experience and observation of men’s senses, taken notice of to exist together ; and are therefore supposed to flow from the particular internal constitution, or unknown essence of that substance. Thus we come to have the ideas of a man, horse, gold, water, &c. ; of which substances, whether any one has any other clear idea, further than of certain simple ideas co-existent together, I appeal to every one’s own experience. ) 由鐵和金剛石中可觀察到的普通素質，組合起來，就形成這些實體(鐵和金剛石)真實的複雜概念，鐵匠或珠寶商一般會比哲學家知道的更多些;不論(哲學家)可能談什麼實質的形式，除了由他們中發現所架構的這些簡單概念集合外，並沒有這些實體其他的概念:我們唯一必須注意，我們實體複雜的概念，除了所有這些構成的簡單概念外，還永遠有一種東西屬於他們的神秘概念，並在他們中存在(subsist):因此當我們談論任何實體類別時，我們說是具有某些素質的物體。就如我們說物體就是一種有廣延、有形相、能運動的一個事物；精神就是能思想的一個事物；同樣，我們也說，硬度、脆度、吸鐵的力量，是在天然磁石中發現的性質。這些，諸如此類的敘述形式，簡單陳述所謂實體，可永遠假定是一種東西，還有廣延性、形相、堅實性、運動、思想或其他可觀察到，縱然我們不知道它是什麼的，概念。(It is the ordinary qualities observable in iron, or a diamond, put together, that make the true complex idea of those substances, which a smith or a jeweller commonly knows better than a philosopher ; who, whatever substantial forms he may talk of, has no other idea of those substances, than what is framed by a collection of those simple ideas which are to be found in them : only we must take notice, that our complex ideas of substances, besides all those simple ideas they are made up of, have always the confused idea of something to which they belong, and in which they subsist : and therefore when we speak of any sort of substance, we say it is a thing having such or such qualities ; as body is a thing that is extended, figured, and capable of motion ; spirit, a thing capable of thinking ; and so hardness, friability, and power to draw iron, we say, are qualities to be found in a loadstone. These, and the like fashions of speaking, intimate that the substance is supposed always something besides the extension, figure, solidity, motion, thinking, or other observable ideas, though we know not what it is.)
• 沒有清晰或獨特的廣泛實體概念(No clear or distinct idea of substance in general.) 因此，當我們在談論或思量任何特殊的物質實體，如馬、石等等時，然而我們對馬或石存在的概念只是可以察覺的若干簡單概念的混雜或組合，這些是經常被稱為馬或石的事物結合在一起;然而，因為我們不能理解他們如何單獨繼續存在，或有共同的存在，我們假設他們存在於並支撐於一種共通的物質;這種支撐，我們以實體名稱來表示，然而我們對這種假設性的支撐並沒有明白或清晰的概念是可確定的。(Hence, when we talk or think of any particular sort of corporeal substances, as horse, stone, &c., though the idea we have of either of them be but the complication or collection of those several simple ideas of sensible qualities, which we used to find united in the thing called horse or stone ; yet, because we cannot conceive how they should subsist alone, nor one in another, we suppose them existing in and supported by some common subject ; which support we denote by the name substance, though it be certain we have no clear or distinct idea of that thing we suppose a support.)
• 對精神實體及物質實體的概念是同樣清晰(As clear an idea of spiritual substance as of corporeal substance.) 洛克同樣的對精神實體的思想、理性、恐懼等精神的作用進行辯證推論----都是建立在”我們並沒有明白或清晰的概念假設性的基層(substratum)之上”。細節就不引述了。
• 他們的主動和被動能力是我們的實體複雜概念主要部分(Their active and passive powers a great part of our complex ideas of substances.) 他能搜集最多的存在於它(特殊實體)中的簡單概念，並把這些歸集在一起，就對任何特殊類別實體有最完整的概念;在這些之中(實體複雜概念)是被推論為它的主動能力，和被動的接收力，雖然不是簡單概念，然而在這方面，為了簡便起見，可以很適當的被推論是他們(簡單概念)其中之一。 (For he has the perfectest idea of any of the particular sorts of substances, who has gathered, and put together, most of those simple ideas which do exist in it ; among which are to be reckoned its active powers, and passive capacities, which, though not simple ideas, yet in this respect, for brevity’s sake, may conveniently enough be reckoned amongst them.) 因此，吸鐵的能力是我們稱之為天然磁石的一種實體的複雜概念之一;被吸引的能力是我們稱之為鐵的複雜一個(概念)的部分:這兩種能力被認為是那些物件內在的性質。因為每一個實體，經由觀察到它其中的一些能力，易於改變別的實體一些可感的性質，正如它直接使我們(心靈中)產生那些我們立刻接受到它的簡單概念，通過引進其他物件的那些新的可感性質，使我們發現那些間接影響我們感官，如同它的可感性質一樣有規則直接的影響我們的感官: 例如，我們直接經由感官在火中察覺它的熱度和顏色；那僅是，如果正確的考量，它(火)的能力在我們(心靈中)產生那些概念:我們也經由我們的感官察覺到木炭的顏色和脆性，由此我們獲得火有其他能力的知識，還另一種能力，火使木材的顏色和堅實性改變。 (Thus, the power of drawing iron is one of the ideas of the complex one of that substance we call a loadstone ; and a power to be so drawn is a part of the complex one we call iron : which powers pass for inherent qualities in those subjects. Because every substance, being as apt, by the powers we observe in it, to change some sensible qualities in other subjects, as it is to produce in us those simple ideas which we receive immediately from it, does, by those new sensible qualities introduced into other subjects, discover to us those powers which do thereby mediately affect our senses, as regularly as its sensible qualities do it immediately : v.g. we immediately by our senses perceive in fire its heat and colour ; which are, if rightly considered, nothing but powers in it to produce those ideas in us : we also by our senses perceive the colour and brittleness of charcoal, whereby we come by the knowledge of another power in fire, which it has to change the colour and consistency of wood.) 經由前者，火直接的，經由後者，它間接的向我們表露這些不同的能力;因此這些(能力)我們留意到是火的一部分性質，並由此使他們(I.E. 火產生熱度和顏色;火使木材的顏色和堅實性改變)成為它(火)複雜概念的一部分。對所有這些我們得以認知的能力，僅以改變了他們(I.E. 火所具備的能力)作用在那些物體中的可感覺的性質作為結束，由此使他們(I.E.火的能力所作用的物體 ) 呈現給我們新的可感覺概念，因此，我評定這些能力是那些簡單概念的其中之一以形成複雜的實體概念，雖然這些能力考量他們自身，是真正複雜的概念。 ( By the former, fire immediately, by the latter, it mediately discovers to us these several powers ; which therefore we look upon to be a part of the qualities of fire, and so make them a part of the complex idea of it. For all those powers that we take cognizance of, terminating only in the alteration of some sensible qualities in those subjects on which they operate, and so making them exhibit to us new sensible ideas, therefore it is that I have reckoned these powers amongst the simple ideas which make the complex ones of the sort  of substances ; though these powers considered in themselves, are truly complex ideas.)當我指出這些任何可能列在其中的簡單概念時，當我們想到任何特殊的實體時，心中總要聯想其它的各種簡單概念來，我希望這較鬆散的意義能夠被瞭解。 (And in this looser sense I crave leave to be understood, when I name any of these potentialities among the simple ideas which we recollect in our minds when we think of particular substances.) 如果我們將會有實體的各自類別真實清楚的觀點，在他們(I.E. 特殊的實體)中個別的能力是必然要被考量的。(For the powers that are severally in them are necessary to be considered, if we will have true distinct notions of the several sorts of substances.)我們亦不必為能力形成實體複雜概念的大部分覺得詫異;因為他們的次等性質主要是在於區別各種實體，並且通常被認為形成他們各自類別的各種實體的複雜概念。因為我們的感官不能物體的體積、質地和形相的渺小部分，真正結構和差異既然在於此，而且這些東西既然是所發見的，因此，我們不得不利用次等性質以為有特性的標誌和記號在我們心中架構他們的概念，使他們相互間有區別: 所有這些次等性質，如我先前所說明的，不是別的，就僅只是一些能力。(Nor are we to wonder that powers make a great part of our complex ideas of substances ; since their secondary qualities are those which in most of them serve principally to distinguish substances one from another, and commonly make a considerable part of the complex idea of the several sorts of them. For, our senses failing us in the discovery of the bulk, texture, and figure of the minute parts of bodies, on which their real constitutions and differences depend, we are fain to make use of their secondary qualities as the characteristical notes and marks whereby to frame ideas of them in our minds, and distinguish them one from another : all which secondary qualities, as has been shown, are nothing but bare powers.)因為鴉片的顏色和滋味，以及它的催眠或止痛的功效，僅是一些能力，取決於它的一些原始性質的能力，憑藉著它能在我們身體的各部分上發生各種作用。(For the colour and taste of opium are, as well as its soporific or anodyne virtues, mere powers, depending on its primary qualities, whereby it is fitted to produce different operations on different parts of our bodies.)

• 三種概念形成我們一個複雜的物質實體(概念)(Three sorts of ideas make our complex ones of corporeal substances.) 複雜的物質實體概念是由這三種概念所構成的。(The ideas that make our complex ones of corporeal substances, are of these three sorts.)

第一，事物的原始性質的概念，被我們的感官發現，即時我們不能察覺他們(原始性質)，一樣存在於他們(物質實體)中;諸如物體各部分的體積、形相、數目、位置和運動;不論我們是否注意到他們(原始性質)，原始性質總是在他們(物質實體)中。( First, the ideas of the primary qualities of things, which are discovered by our senses, and are in them even when we perceive them not ; such are the bulk, figure, number, situation, and motion of the parts of bodies ; which are really in them, whether we take notice of them or not.)

第二，可感覺的次等性質，是依靠這些(原始性質)，僅只是實體的一些能力，經由我們的感官產生各種概念;這些概念之不存在於事物本身，正如同其他的情況事物不存在於原因內。(Secondly, the sensible secondary qualities, which, depending on these, are nothing but the powers those substances have to produce several ideas in us by our senses ; which ideas are not in the things themselves, otherwise than as anything is in its cause.)

第三，我們考量實體的精確性，提供或接受原始性質的變化，當實體那樣的變化必然對我們產生有別於它以前所產生的概念;這些叫做主動和被動的能力:所有這些能力，只要我們對他們注意到或有觀念，僅是感覺的簡單概念就終止了。不論天然磁石有什麼能力使鐵的微細分子發生變化，我們全然不會對它(天然磁石)具有對鐵起作用的能力有任何概念，若不是它的(鐵)可感運動不會發現它(天然磁石的能力):我不懷疑，儘管幾千種改變，我們日常處理的物體，有能力互相起作用，我們從來沒有感覺到，因為他們從來沒有顯現可感覺的結果。因此，能力正是形成我們複雜實體概念的大部分。(Thirdly, the aptness we consider in any substance, to give or receive such alterations of primary qualities, as that the substance so altered should produce in us different ideas from what it did before ; these are called active and passive powers : all which powers, as far as we have any notice or notion of them, terminate only in sensible simple ideas. For whatever alteration a loadstone has the power to make in the minute particles of iron, we should have no notion of any power it had at all to operate on iron, did not its sensible motion discover it : and I doubt not, but there are a thousand changes, that bodies we daily handle have a power to use in one another, which we never suspect, because they never appear in sensible effects. Powers therefore justly make a great part of our complex ideas of substances. )

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